The CBMTS-Industry III
"Second World Congress on Chemical, Biological and Radiological Terrorism"
Dubrovnik, Croatia 6-12 September 2003

Selected Abstracts:

Brucella Species as Potential BW
Dr. P. H. Elzer (U.S.)

          Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease with potential for use as a biowarfare agent. The genus Brucella contains six recognized species including B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. suis, B. canis, B. ovis, and B. neotomae. All of the brucellae are Gram negative, facultative intracellular pathogens, which survive and replicate in host macrophages. The hallmarks of animal brucellosis, in both domestic and wild animals, are abortion, infertility and reproductive failure. If used in an agroterrorist attack, these organisms could decimate a generation of livestock and companion animals. Fever, chills, malaise, arthritis, dementia, and possibly even death characterize the disease in man. Human brucellosis, also known as undulant fever or Malta fever, is caused by only four species of brucellae. B. melitensis is the most infectious to man z(1-10 colony forming units are thought to cause disease) followed by B. suis (1000-10,000), B. abortus (100,000), and finally B. canis (>1,000,000 in an immuno-compromised individual). There are several animal vaccines that are safe and effective; however, they are all pathogenic to man.
          Currently there are no vaccines approved for use in humans. Brucellae are characterized as BSL-3 organisms due to their ability to infect humans through aerosol exposure, which makes them an ideal bacterial agent for use by terrorists. If the general public were exposed to this biowarfare agent, medical resources would be stretched ten fold to take care of the large number of people that would be debilitated by this organism.
          With the recent tragic events in the US and throughout the world, three species of Brucella are considered "agents of mass destruction." The need for a human vaccine is paramount.

An Assessment on Chemical Terrorism
Professor Ji-Sheng Chen (China)

The rapid development of chemical terrorism is a major threat to 21st century. According to incomplete figures, almost 1000 incidents involving toxic chemicals occurred between 1960-2002, the rate between chemical and all terrorism incidents is 6% approximately, the casualties from chemical incidents make up about 20% of all casualties from terrorism incidents. Chemical terrorism is in a special category of low frequency terrrorism but with high casualties.
          The horrors in the Tokyo subway attack, which occurred in March 1995, show a real disastrous fact of chemical terrorism. It implies that well-organized terrorism groups have the capabilities to acquire, manufacture, and use military chemical agents in terrorism. Current chemical terrorism has the hallmarks of catastrophe: first, fabrication and use of chemical warfare agents, second, use of release delivery means, and finally, attacks on mass aggregations of people.
          But all past chemical terrorism attacks, were at the simplest level of technology, always with low-toxicity and low-purity of toxic materials and using low efficiency of dispersion methods. For instance, in the Tokyo subway attack, the sarin produced was only about 30% pure, and the sarin was released simultaneously from a plastic bag. If improved technology for the manufacture or dispersion were used, undoubtedly the casualties might have increased to over ten thousand and the mortality rate would have jumped to 30%-50%.
          What we learned from past chemical incidents, in simple words, is that toxic chemicals use in terrorism are readily available and they have the capability to inflict significant casualties. We should pay great attention and do more to prevent chemical terrorism in the future.

Chemical and Biological Terrorism in Latin America: the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
Maria Jose Espona (Argentina)

          A review of the main global approaches towards the issue of chemical and biological weapons and their eventual use by terrorist groups identifies of two major conceptual mistakes. First, that the terrorist organizations that might use weapons containing chemical and biological agents will use them to cause a massive damage. Second, that there are no records in Latin America about organizations willing to use chemical or biological agents as weapons.
          Both assertions prove to be false. Given that in the intrastate conflict taking place in Colombia there are reports about the use of chemical and biological agents by the oldest terrorist group in the region, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). This tactical modality would be the result of all the know-how transmitted from other insurgency groups elsewhere, particularly the Irish Republican Army (IRA).
          In our paper, we will analyze the aforementioned Colombian case, describing the conflict and its main insurgency player, the FARC. Subsequently, we will describe three basic tactics of use of chemical substances and biological agents by this organization: cyanide gas bombs; pollution of water sources with agricultural toxics; and bombs and ammunitions saturated with human faeces. Finally, the conclusions will show the impact of these terrorist modus operandi in the evolution of the conflict in Colombia.

The Canadian National Pharmaceutical/Medical Stockpile Program
Dr Colin A. Harwood (Canada)

          Health Canada has posessed a pharmaceutical/ medical stockpile since the 1960s. Originally developed to respond to a nuclear attack with traumatic injuries, it has been changed over the years to include supplies and equipment for natural disasters, and recently, drugs and vaccines to prevent and treat chemical, biological and radio-nuclear (CBRN) agents have been added. Large amounts of the supplies are located in major warehouses in the largest cities, smaller amounts are spread in about 1600 sites throughout the country. Many are contained in boxed units: 19 tonne Emergency Hospitals, and smaller Advanced Treatment Units, Casualty Collecting Units, Mobile Feeding Units, Reception Centre Kits and others. Additional supplies are stored in bulk. The contents, management and replenishment of these supplies will be discussed as will their modernization. Apart from general supplies, we have committed to have on hand sufficient stocks for an incident involving 100,000 casualties due to Class A biological agents, 20,000 trauma casualties and 1,000 chemical agents.

Strength and Weakness of Pesticides as Potential Chemical Weapons to be Used by Terrorists
Dr. Milena Jovasevic-Stojanovic (Serbia)

          The accute effects of pesticides have been widely studied and are well understood. After 11 September 2001, the US EPA made a list of 38 chemicals, which were considered to be "highly toxic pesticides and OP nerve agents judged to be used by terrorists". The main criteria for this list were high inhalation and dermal toxicity. However, many thousends of pesticide poisonings occur each year worldwide, not necesarily by highly toxic pesticides. Moreover, some studies in Serbia have shown that the toxicity level of substance was not the primary factor in accidental poisoning by pesticides. Taking into account that most terrorist groups have limited material base for production of pure highly toxic chemicals, it is reasonable to suppose that pesticides of lower toxicity also could be used in terrorists atacks.
          In this paper, we analyze characteristics of various types of pesticides, as well as various aspects of pesticides production, transportation, storage and handling in conjuction with terrorists threat. An analysis of evidence of accute poisonings by pesticide from National Poisoning Center, also, was made. On the basis of the results of these analyses, an evaluation and classification of factors that represent strength of pesticides as chemical weapons, we suggest that pesticides are not likely to be used as chemical weapons.

Prevention of Gas Seeping into Buildings through Construction Materials: Chemical Terrorism Mitigation
Dr. R.R. Khaydarov (Uzbekistan)

          One of possible methods of realization of terrorist acts is using gases and liquids, which easily permeate through the constructive materials of walls, floor, ceiling, roof, etc. into buildings by the capillary action of the pores. Toxic volatile organic compounds, organic and inorganic gases, radioactive elements, especially, those emitting alpha particles, can be used. If the gases and liquids are soluble in water and can be added to groundwater, they can also enter underground structures through opening and pores in concrete or pushed by hydrostatic pressure.
          We have developed a method to reduce concentration of toxic and radioactive gases in buildings, underground structures, tunnels, garages, etc., using chemicals, which seal microcrevices and minute pores inside the concrete or another building materials against gases, as well as water molecules. Our gases seali and consists of a blend of polymeric silicoorganic compounds.
          Gas (air, Ar and 222Rn) permeability of concrete and gypsum after treatment by chemicals was examined. The influence of types of cement, sand and gypsum, preliminary treatment by different chemicals, different types of polymeric compounds, time between treatments, moisture of materials, aging of chemicals and of treated materials were examined.
          Experiments have shown that our method can reduce the coefficient of gas (air, Ar and 222Rn) permeability 200 - 400 times. Consumption of the chemicals is 0.2 L/m2 for gypsum and 0.3-0.4 L/m2 for concrete and depends on porosity of concrete. Surfaces of the concrete and gypsum samples are treated by spray.

Cholinesterase Activity Assays: An Overview of Procedures Suggested for Human Whole Blood Analysis
Dr. Elsa Reiner (Croatia)

          Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activities in human blood are biomarkers of exposure to organophosphates or carbamates. Since Ellman in 1962 described a spectrophotometric method with thiocholine substrates and DTNB as the thiol reagent, the method became widespread either in its original version or with some modifications. Procedures for BChE activities in plasma or serum have been validated, and used for many years. This is not the case for the assays of AChE and BChE in whole blood. However, suggestions concerning improvement and standardization have been presented at each CBMTS meeting since 1994.
          The following procedures for the assay in whole blood have been discussed: to measure AChE plus BChE activities with ATCh, BChE with butyrylthiocholine (BTCh) and calculate AChE from the difference, to apply three substrates for the differentiation of AChE from BChE, to use ATCh plus ethopropazine (a selective BChE inhibitor) for the AChE assay and BTCh for BChE, or to measure activities with ATCh in the presence and absence of ethopropazine (for AChE activity) and calculate BChE from the difference. Suggestions included normalization of AChE activities to the hemoglobin content. No interlaboratory quality control studies have been conducted so far concerning AChE and BChE assays in whole blood.

Terrorist Attacks with CW Agents and the Toxicological Aspects of Investigation
Professor Victor Shulga (Russia)

          Today, chemical terrorism and crime using CW agents adapted for criminal purposes has become a reality. In the hands of criminals CW may be used in any intentionally dosed quantities which are also now capable of assuring human body exposure at any planned time from a few minutes to several days or months.
          The use of even well known chemical warfare agents in a form of complex mixtures with other compounds can considerably impede their indication in the atmosphere and at location using conventional methods of chemical analysis. Thus, it is possible to expect that the clinical course of intoxication of the affected persons will be non-typical, and treatment efficiency of the known antidotes and other therapeutics may be dramatically reduced.
          Real instance of similar application of a warfare agents in terrorist purposes using sarin has already taken place in Japan (Matsumoto, 1994, Tokyo underground, 1995) which has been a very safe territory in terms of crime, however they were obviously unprepared in countering a chemical attack.
          Conducting the investigation of the pointed act of terrorism in absentia we had applied a clinical-and-toxicological method. The method selected was based on characteristic injurious action of the substances used for criminal purposes both at an acute intoxication and in a long-term period. In this case a behavior of the beginning, course and outcome of residual neuroendocrine toxicity became apparent.
          This method allowed us to insert and use toxicological expertise and to predict possible consequences of the mentioned accident. The clinical-and-toxicological method was successfully applied during investigations of other accidents, which occurred with the use of chemical agents.
          The application of this method along with chemical and biochemical investigations both right after accident and during study of long-term effects should be as obligatory.

The Issue of Botulism
Anton Wicki (Switzerland)

          In Switzerland, during winter 2001/02, a unique up surge of botulism was observed in farm animals, particularly in horses and with some in cattle. Similar observations were made in other European countries. An old, and rare illness arose suddenly and frequently. Feeding silage from tightly packed, plastic-wrapped large bales was assumed to be the common cause.
          Clinically, the diagnosis is made with high reliability. Culture and typecast of Clostridium botulinum are qualitatively well established. The quantitative relationship between the course of the disease and the laboratory findings is uncertain. The mouse assay is still the most reliable method to quantify in vivo active toxins. Why and when Clostridia produce how much of toxin is not well understood.
          For therapy, needed anti-serum had to be imported by air freight from South Africa and the USA which caused an undesirable delay. Since that time, a modest supply of anti-serum ha been stocked. Because the epidemiological situation is still unclear, the prophylactic vaccination can only be discussed with contradicting views.
          An increasing number of cases of botulism in farm animals means an increasing danger of food contamination with Clostridia and Botulinum Neurotoxin.
          The experiences with farm animals and the resulting problems with Clostridium botulinum are directly transferable to botulism in man. In overcoming an employment of Clostridium botulinum or Botulinum Neurotoxin as a weapon of mass destruction or by terrorists, we will face the same problems of laboratory diagnostics, therapy and prophylaxis. And these problems must have been resolved with foresight not hindsight.

Meeting the Radiological Threat - A Crisis Management Guide for First Responders
Warwick Penrose (Australia)

          The breadth and depth of information that a First Responder must digest in order to play an effective role during a Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Incident is enormous. In order to ensure that First Responders play this role, equipment, training and procedures are constantly being refined to keep pace with the evolving terrorist threat. One tool that was developed and operationally tested (Sydney Olympics 2000) was a Radiological Crisis Management Guide for First Responders.

THE THREAT.
          Although not impossible, the likelihood of terrorist use of an Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) is unlikely. Of greater concern is the terrorist use of radioactive material, combined with explosives, to contaminate people or an area or facility via dissemination (Radiological Dissemination Device - RDD/Dirty Bomb) or emission (Radiological Emission Device - RED). Historically, terrorists have acquired radioactive material in the form of radio-isotopes from various industrial and medical sources. Radio-isotopes may be alpha, beta, gamma or neutron radiation emitters, each offering different lethal hazards.

FIRST RESPONDERS GUIDE.
          In preparation for the Sydney Olympics a Radiological Crisis Management guide was developed and issued out to many first responder agency's for use in case of terrorist attack. The guide aims to provide the first responder with the information on how to interpret radiological diagnostic information so that informed decisions are made on how to operate safely in a radiological hotzone and mitigate that radiological threat, which is critical to ensure that the proper foundation has been laid to allow full site remediation.

Ed. Note: Warwick Penrose will be ready to provide copies of the Guide to interested professionals participating in this World Congress